$\newenvironment {prompt}{}{} \newcommand {\pKa }{\text {p}K_{\text {z}}} \newcommand {\pKb }{\text {p}K_{\text {b}}} \newcommand {\Ka }{K_{\text {z}}} \newcommand {\Kb }{K_{\text {b}}} \newcommand {\Kc }{K_{\text {e}}} \newcommand {\Ke }{K_{\text {e}}} \newcommand {\Kw }{K_{\text {w}}} \newcommand {\pH }{\text {pH}} \newcommand {\pOH }{\text {pOH}} \newcommand {\ungraded }[0]{} \newcommand {\Pifont }[1]{\fontfamily {#1}\fontencoding {U}\fontseries {m}\fontshape {n}\selectfont } \newcommand {\Pisymbol }[2]{{\Pifont {#1}\char #2}} \newcommand {\Pilist }[2]{\begin {list}{\Pisymbol {#1}{#2}}{}} \newcommand {\ding }[0]{\Pisymbol {pzd}} \newcommand {\dinglist }[1]{\begin {Pilist}{pzd}{#1}} \newcommand {\dingautolist }[1]{\begin {Piautolist}{pzd}{#1}} \newcommand {\framed }[0]{\MakeFramed {\advance \hsize -\width \FrameRestore }} \newcommand {\shaded }[0]{\def \FrameCommand {\fboxsep =\FrameSep \colorbox {shadecolor}}\MakeFramed {\FrameRestore }} \newcommand {\leftbar }[0]{\def \FrameCommand {\vrule width 3pt \hspace {10pt}}\MakeFramed {\advance \hsize -\width \FrameRestore }} \newcommand {\titled-frame }[1]{\def \FrameCommand {\fboxsep 8pt\fboxrule 2pt \TitleBarFrame {\textbf {#1}}}\def \FirstFrameCommand {\fboxsep 8pt\fboxrule 2pt \TitleBarFrame [$\blacktriangleright $]{\textbf {#1}}}\def \MidFrameCommand {\fboxsep 8pt\fboxrule 2pt \TitleBarFrame [$\blacktriangleright $]{\textbf {#1\ (cont)}}}\def \LastFrameCommand {\fboxsep 8pt\fboxrule 2pt \TitleBarFrame {\textbf {#1\ (cont)}}}\MakeFramed {\advance \hsize -20pt \FrameRestore }} \newcommand {\FrameCommand }[0]{\setlength \fboxrule {\FrameRule }\setlength \fboxsep {\FrameSep }\fbox } \newcommand {\FirstFrameCommand }[0]{\FrameCommand } \newcommand {\MidFrameCommand }[0]{\FrameCommand } \newcommand {\LastFrameCommand }[0]{\FrameCommand } \newcommand {\FrameHeightAdjust }[0]{6pt} \newcommand {\teachingnote }[0]{\setbox 0\vbox \bgroup } \newcommand {\teachingnotes }[0]{} \newcommand {\bysame }[0]{\mbox {\rule {3em}{.4pt}}\,} \newcommand {\N }[0]{\mathbb N} \newcommand {\C }[0]{\mathbb C} \newcommand {\W }[0]{\mathbb W} \newcommand {\Z }[0]{\mathbb Z} \newcommand {\Q }[0]{\mathbb Q} \newcommand {\R }[0]{\mathbb R} \newcommand {\A }[0]{\mathbb A} \newcommand {\D }[0]{\mathcal D} \newcommand {\F }[0]{\mathcal F} \newcommand {\ph }[0]{\varphi } \newcommand {\ep }[0]{\varepsilon } \newcommand {\aph }[0]{\alpha } \newcommand {\QM }[0]{\begin {center}{\huge \textbf {?}}\end {center}} \newcommand {\le }[0]{\leqslant } \newcommand {\ge }[0]{\geqslant } \newcommand {\a }[0]{\wedge } \newcommand {\v }[0]{\vee } \newcommand {\l }[0]{\ell } \newcommand {\mat }[0]{\mathsf } \newcommand {\vec }[0]{\mathbf } \newcommand {\subset }[0]{\subseteq } \newcommand {\supset }[0]{\supseteq } \newcommand {\emptyset }[0]{\varnothing } \newcommand {\xto }[0]{\xrightarrow } \newcommand {\qedsymbol }[0]{$\blacksquare $} \newcommand {\bar }[0]{\protect \overline } \newcommand {\hat }[0]{\protect \widehat } \newcommand {\tilde }[0]{\widetilde } \newcommand {\tri }[0]{\triangle } \newcommand {\minipad }[0]{\vspace {1ex}} \newcommand {\leftexp }[2]{{\vphantom {#2}}^{#1}{#2}} \newcommand {\epsilon }[0]{\varepsilon } \newcommand {\theta }[0]{\vartheta } \newcommand {\l }[0]{\ell } \newcommand {\d }[0]{\,d} \newcommand {\ddx }[0]{\frac {d}{dx}} \newcommand {\dydx }[0]{\frac {dy}{dx}} \newcommand {\protofamily }[0]{\usefont {T1}{proto}{m}{n}} \newcommand {\translitprotofont }[0]{\itshape } \newcommand {\lo }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {a}}}} \newcommand {\loo }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {d}}}} \newcommand {\la }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {w}}}} \newcommand {\lb }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {H}}}} \newcommand {\lc }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {T}}}} \newcommand {\ld }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {K}}}} \newcommand {\lf }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {E}}}} \newcommand {\lh }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {l}}}} \newcommand {\li }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {o}}}} \newcommand {\lx }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {x}}}} \newcommand {\ly }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {R}}}} \newcommand {\lz }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {v}}}} \newcommand {\lw }[0]{\vcenter {\hbox {\textproto {q}}}}$